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American in France – a Hero’s Life

May 6, 2025 Joe

September 1917. France. He’s flying a SPAD S.VII, a part of the fighter group known as the Lafayette Escadrille. Four bombers and 16 Fokkers identified. A Furbal ensues. ^[1]

The SPAD S.VII

The Chattahoochee River’s highest headwaters emerge from a tiny spring a-way up in the Blue Ridge range of the Appalachian Mountains in north-eastern Georgia, along the Appalachian Trail. From there, the river grows as it meanders, turning muddier and ever more sluggish.

It winds southwest, becoming the largest river in Georgia. It joins the Flint River near the Florida border. Downstream of that confluence, it’s called the Apalachicola. (I like saying that name.) That river creeps down to the Gulf of Mexico, forming the time zone boundary between Eastern and Central as it flows through Florida’s Panhandle.^[2]

Far upstream, the Chattahoochee wanders through the northwest suburbs of Atlanta before slithering more westward, eventually forming part of the natural border between Georgia and Alabama. In Columbus, Georgia—not far from FDR’s Warm Springs—the Chattahoochee separates that city from the much smaller Phenix City, Alabama.

It was there, in Columbus, on October 12, 1895, that Eugene James Bullard was born, the 7^th of 10 children, to William Bullard (who had been a slave) and Josephine Thomas, who was of mixed black and Muscogee Creek Amerindian ancestry. [some say October 6]

Dropping out of a cloud he catches a Fokker unawares and squares up behind it. He fires. Then again. Debris of wing fabric. The prey begins descending rapidly, nearly lifeless, unable to keep altitude. He chases it, across enemy lines, diving to confirm the kill.

Growing up in some of the worst Jim Crow years was difficult – traumatic – for young Eugene. He was heavily influenced by his father, who carried a strong opinion that, despite their circumstances, Blacks must maintain dignity and self-respect. At age 8 young Eugene witnessed a mob of drunken whites try to lynch his father, a sight and experience that affected him deeply… and forever.

His dad also told of his children about places like France (which had banned slavery in 1818) where blacks were treated the same as whites.

As Eugene would later write: “My father had told me about France, where a man was judged by his merit, not the color of his skin. And that was where I wanted to go.”

Young Eugene fledged quite early. Yearning for freedom, he ran away at age 11 after completing the 5^th grade – the end of his formal education. No, he didn’t’ quite join the circus, or go to France. At least not right away. He joined a traveling group of Roma, ^[3] “touring” Georgia as a sort of traveling road show, the “Gypsy” clan, who called themselves “Stanleys”, also told him about the Black/White racial equality they’d seen in Britain (which outlawed slavery in 1833). ^[4]

Suddenly he hears whop!-whop!-whop! Then again. Again. He’s taking fire. Bullets. So many bullets whizzing. The taut muslin fabric of his wings are perforated. Then … a series of metallic “twang” sounds. Rounds striking the SPAD’s engine — it almost immediately begins backfiring, sputtering, and spewing black smoke.

Always with Europe on his mind, he made his way to the Atlantic Coast, taking odd jobs, even winning races as a horse jockey. He made his way to Virginia. There in Norfolk, in 1912, he managed to stowaway on a German steamship, the Marta Russ, bound for Hamburg. The route included a stop in Aberdeen, Scotland. That’s where Eugene disembarked.

He was pleasantly surprised to learn what he’d heard was true. He wasn’t seen as a Black man, he was seen, and accepted, simply as a US American. He was eager to get active and fit in.

He joined a boxing club. He worked in Vaudeville-style shows, performing in a Black troupe called the “Freedman Pickaninnies.” They drew guffaws and laughs with slapstick acts and insights into US culture, especially racism. As a boxer, he spent time training with Aaron Brown, AKA the Dixie Kid, who had taken his great career to Europe. Eugene became a very good boxer, eventually going on tour to fight in places like Paris.

Ahhh, Paris. That was his goal all along: France. He would stay there. He’d be French. He even changed his middle name to Jacques.

He’s over enemy lines. He turns his gasping SPAD, limping along, back toward the French lines. To relative safety. He scans the ground to get his bearings. Then — the engine quits. Completely. Rapidly losing altitude. Looking, looking. There! An open muddy field. Perhaps a hundred yards wide. … In No-man’s land. Going down. ^[5]

Proudly wearing the Croix de Guerre

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, triggered a chain reaction of catastrophic decisions and ultimatums, fueled by reckless nationalism, that led to the Great War—later called World War I.

Eugene volunteered for the French Foreign Legion. He first saw combat with the 1^st Moroccan Division. After heavy losses, the unit was folded into others, and Eugene was reassigned to the 170^th Infantry Regiment. There, he earned the nickname “The Black Swallow of Death.” The regiment’s symbol was a swallow; he was Black; and he had proven himself highly effective in battle.^[6]

At the Battle of Verdun in 1916, Bullard was seriously injured when a shell exploded nearby. He lost most of his teeth and had a gaping shrapnel wound in his thigh. He was awarded the Croix de Guerre. In recovery several doctors told him he’d never walk again.

He heard, but didn’t listen.

The Croix de Guerre

Knowing his leg injury would make infantry service impossible, he set a new goal: join the French Air Corps.^[7]

He applied. Based on his battle record, he was accepted. In November,1916, after his recovery and rehab, he entered the Aéronautique Militaire. Eugene Bullard was now on his path to become the first Black fighter pilot in history.

He completed flight training in the summer of 1917. He flew his first combat mission on September 8.

In No Man’s Land. Bullets zipping over his head, buzzing around him. He scrambles from the wreckage into a conveniently nearby shell crater. Wet. Alone. Dusk comes. He shivers. Then Darkness. Cold. An eerie silence settles over No-man’s Land.

In the stillness he hears faint noises. Voices? Is that French? Yes – French! His pupils are wide. A group of soldiers with horses is coming his way to recover the SPAD. Leading them is, coincidentally, his own aircraft mechanic. The horses lug the crippled plane to the forest line. And, they rescue Bullard.

Bullard flew at least 20 combat missions from September to November (some say 22, and others even up to 29) with 2 very likely kills (not confirmed; he and others saw the targets in a “death spiral” but were unable to witness impact). His first kill led to he, himself, getting shot down … as noted here.

Despite his successes his flying career ended abruptly when a French officer insulted him and, after a brief verbal exchange, challenged him to a fight. Bad idea. Bullard’s boxing skills quickly ended the tête-à-tête — but the win cost him his wings. He was immediately dismissed from the Air Corps and reassigned to the 170^th Regiment for non-combat duties.

Now fully French, Bullard remained after the Armistice. He boxed professionally. He helped found, then outright own, a nightclub: Le Grand Duc. ^[9] He became a jazz band drummer – leading to friendships with both Josephine Baker and Louie Armstrong. ^[8]

Also fluent in German, Bullard was recruited as a spy in the late 1930s. Nazis often visited his club, assuming he posed no threat. Meanwhile, he quietly gathered intel in plain sight.

May 10, 1940. Nazis sweep through the Netherlands and Belgium, then turn to cut off Paris from the coast. France is desperate. Forty-three-year-old Eugene Bullard joins the French 51^st Infantry in its futile defense of Orleans, 80 miles southwest of Paris. It’s a important location, lying at a strategic point on the Loire River. ^[10]

Again, he’s seriously wounded. It’s time to go.

As France fell, Bullard fled with his two daughters and settled in New York. There, no one knew of his heroic past. He didn’t bother to tell them. He lived in relative anonymity for the rest of his life, working various jobs until he eventually got a steady and good paying one: an elevator operator at Rockefeller Center. ^[11]

August 27, 1949. A concert in Peekskill, NY to benefit the Civil Rights Congress. Attendees, nearly all Black, were viciously attacked by a white mob – among them members of Veterans of Foreign Wars and the American Legion and even local and state law enforcement officials. Eugene Bullard was among many dozen severely beaten with baseball bats and rocks.

In October, 1961 Bullard had just turned 66 years old. After a life of facing war, racism, injury, and obscurity, he faced his final battle: stomach cancer. Father Time is undefeated. On the 12^th day of the month this hero, the Black Swallow of Death, “slipped the surly bonds of Earth.”

Bullard statue, Warner Robins Museum of Aviation

Afterward:

Eugene Jacques Bullard is buried in the French War Veterans’ section of Flushing Cemetery, in Queens. He received a total of 14 decorations and medals from the French Government. His friend Louis Armstrong rests nearby.

Posthumous recognition:

Bullard’s plaque at the Georgia Aviation Hall of Fame

1989: part of the inaugural class of the Georgia Aviation Hall of Fame.
1994: commissioned a 2^nd Lieutenant in the US Air Force.
2019: Statue of Bullard unveiled at the Warner Robins Museum of Aviation, GA
2022: Inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame, in Dayton, OH.

Thank you for reading. As always, you can add yourself to the notification list for newly published material by clicking here . Or emailing joe@girardmeister.com

Footnotes and such:

[1] The SPAD S.VII C.1 was the first in a series of single-seat biplane fighter aircraft produced by Société Pour L’Aviation et ses Dérivés (SPAD) during the First World War.

The Lafayette Escadrille was part of the French Airforce made up largely of US American volunteers. It was named for the US Revolutionary war hero, the Marquis de Lafayette, a young French nobleman who volunteered to serve with General Washington.

Furbal – fighter pilot term for a sky full of fighters from each belligerent, each plane maneuvering aggressively trying to shoot down the others’ planes. I imagine they looked like chaos from both the ground and the air.

[2] Only one country calls it the “Gulf of ‘murica.” So, Mexico it shall be here. I do have international readers.

[3] Formerly more commonly called “gypies”; this term is considered pejorative and impolite. Many Roma (also Travelers) had come to the New World via the UK, many sent over just sent to get rid of them.

[4] Not for blacks, but there was prejudice against the Roma. The traveling Roma: in that sense it sort of WAS like joining the circus. Read about Roma Traveling road shows.

[5] No-man’s land: in WWI western front vernacular, the area between the front-line trenches of each side, esp. between the French and/or English lines and the German lines.

[6] Looks like Bullard probably had to wait until October, when he was old enough to voluntarily commit to this.

He was awarded the Croix de Guerre for his service with the 170^th in Verdun

[7] There were at least 750,000 casualties in the Battle of Verdun. Some say up to one million. Among these were 300,000 combat deaths.

[8] Josephine Baker is a very, very interesting historical figure, indeed. And worthy of her own bio-graphical “strong woman” essay. Her life’s path was not dissimilar to Bullard’s. Originally US American, bigotry and racism drove her to settle in France after her experiences in Paris during a tour. There she was a highly accepted and respected performer. She worked in the French Resistance and the Red Cross during WW2, thereby also earning the Croix de Guerre.

[9] The Grand Duke

[10] Orleans, famed for Joan d’Arc liberating it during the 100 Years War, was used by Nazis as a transportation, communication and logistics hub until it was liberated in August, 1944 – more than 3 months after the D-Day at Normandy.

France signed an armistice with the Nazis on June 22. Total capitulation.

[11] Eugene Bullard married in France to an exquisite well-bred woman from a family of high society. They got along well and had two daughters. Unfortunately their backgrounds were just too different and the marriage failed. She relinquished custody to him. Good thing. One shudders to think of what could have happened to two young mixed-race girls when Nazi lads laid their eyes upon them.

Best two online resources for this story

https://web.archive.org/web/20210421053743/https://www.daedalians.org/americas-most-unsung-hero-eugene-james-bullard/

https://www.warhistoryonline.com/world-war-i/black-swallow-of-death.html

Biographical, Edwardian/Pre-War, History, Strong Women

A Cross fror Higbee

January 17, 2024 Joe

Lenah, circa 1918

Lenah Higbee, a life that deserves to be remembered

Originally Canadian, born May 18, 1874 ^(*1) in New Brunswick, Canada, Lenah Higbee (nee: Sutcliffe), immigrated to the US to attend nursing school at the New York Post Graduate Hospital [now NYU Medical], where she completed her nurse’s certification. She did further graduate study at Fordham University, in the Bronx and she also began her own private nursing practice.

In 1899 she met John H Higbee, a widower and retired Marine Lt. Colonel. They courted and were married that year.^(*2) He was in service for many years, beginning in 1861, in the US Civil War.

Through marriage Lenah immediately became a naturalized US citizen, by laws at that time (which stood until 1922, when US sentiment turned largely anti-immigrant). John was approximately three decades older than she.

In April, 1908 Lenah became a widow when John passed away. They had no children, although it’s possible John had children from his earlier marriage.

The very next month the US Congress passed legislation to form the Navy Nurse Corps. It became law when it was signed by President “Teddy” Roosevelt. On 1 October, 1908, Lenah Sutcliffe Higbee became one the first twenty nurses in the original Navy Nurse Corps (Historians call it The Sacred Twenty). Now widowed, she was unmarried, a requirement to serve.

The 20 were initially trained at Portsmouth, Virginia. She soon earned the role of Chief Nurse at Norfolk Naval Hospital (Virginia), and in January 1911 became the second ever “Superintendent” of the Corps.

Over the next 11 years of her military career Higbee was never given an official military rank (unlike Major “Hot Lips” Houlihan) and was paid less than other skilled Navy professionals with similar demands. Throughout the remainder of her Naval career, she carried the simple and non-military title “Superintendent”, an unofficial title (it is, however, the title of the commander of the US Naval Academy).

Superintendent Higbee

During this period, up until The Great War, she implemented universal training programs with demanding criteria to ensure Corps-wide competency in all situations. She helped grow and train the Corps to nearly 1,400 nurses. Higbee was a well-placed powerful activist for military nurses, advocating for better pay, better working conditions and better recognition. She served on many military and national medical committees, including the Red Cross, to help prepare for the Great War, in which America’s entry was appearing ever more likely.

In 1916 Woodrow Wilson was re-elected to the presidency under the slogan “He kept us out of war.” That wouldn’t last long. Just 10 weeks after the election, the Zimmermann Telegram was intercepted and de-cyphered by the Brits. A month later the message was relayed to President Wilson, who then released the text to the US public. [the one-month delay, was because the Brits feared revealing that they had broken the German code. Perhaps the first use of “Gentlemen don’t read each other’s mail”]. The Public outcry was enormous … and angry.

Coincident with the cable’s public release, the Germans resumed unrestricted submarine warfare; that included sinking unarmed ships of all sorts.

Thus, the US gave up on non-interventionism and, as of a Congressional Declaration of War requested by Wilson, April 17, was on the way to war: “Send the word over there: That the Yanks are coming.” [By Year’s end, Over There made it to #1]

The military was mobilized, but not all that quickly – the US wasn’t really prepared; they didn’t have a large military with respect to Gross National Product at that time. Recruiting was lagging, armaments and training were severely lacking.

But the Naval Nursing Corps was ready. With Lenah Higbee acting effectively as Naval Nurse Chief of Staff, in charge of everything within the Corps, working long hours at the Navy Bureau of Medicine & Surgery in Washington, she managed the recruitment, deployment to hospitals and ships, matériel, and logistics of all Navy and Marine Nurse contributions to wartime healthcare.

During the war, the Navy Nurse Corps served on every combat ship, transport ship, and supply ship. Nurses were also attached to the US Railway Battery in France.

Higbee’s nurses were also called upon to train the recently recruited Navy Corpsmen. About 350 in total.

The demands on Higbee were extremely challenging, made worse as the Spanish Flu pandemic ^(*3) that swept across the World ^(*4) and affected every nation of the war’s belligerents; the flu hit US servicemen just as its battle casualties began mounting [The US Military suffered some 117,000 deaths in the war, twice the loss in Viet Nam, in just a year and a half, with half the population; this includes about 45,000 from the flu].

Corpsmen and nurses assigned artillery land-duty dealt with shocking human trauma of every sort: Shrapnel, blast shocks, piercing bullet wounds, psychiatric troubles (“shell-shock”, now PTSD). Not to mention trench foot, vermin like rats, and gas warfare and STDs. And, of course, the Spanish Flu.

Higbee’s contributions were more than equal to any on the battlefield, or at sea. Her tireless and steadfast devotion were instrumental in providing high quality healthcare to servicemen. Success of the Nurse Corps, a vital component of the war effort, would not have happened without Lenah Sutcliffe Higbee. Her dedication and professionalism motivated not just the entire Corps, but all those working with and around her.

Her contributions were rightly recognized. On November 11, 1920 (1^st official anniversary of Armistice Day) she and three other Navy nurses — Marie Louise Hidell, Lillian M. Murphy and Edna Place — were the first women to be awarded the Navy Cross. Sadly, the awards to the other three were posthumous – they had succumbed to the Spanish Flu, contracted from patients they had treated. Higbee is, consequently, often regarded as the first woman to be so honored.

The Navy Cross

Thanks to the nurses’ and Higbee’s wartime efforts, which was carried on by their successors, military nurses were given official military rank beginning with World War II.

To this day, the Navy Nurse Corps continues to provide quality care to Navy Staff and families. The memory of Lenah Higbee is held as an inspiration to all who serve.

Higbee retired from the Navy on November 30, 1922. Throughout her very distinguished career, despite the ever-present discrimination from the still male-dominated medical professions, she had maintained her dignity and service commitment. After retirement she filled her life with pursuits not possible during her service to the nation. She eventually moved far from New York and Washington to central Florida.

The SS Orbita manifest shows her, as a widow, arriving at Ellis Island, New York, on May 23^rd, 1924 from Cherbourg, France – with an address in New York City at East 76^th Street (no bldg number); that’s in mid-Manhattan.
Another manifest, SS Dominica, shows her arriving February 2^nd,1926 at Ellis Island from Trinidad and Tobago (then part of British West Indies).
She arrived in New York on June 23^rd, 1935 from Southampton, England on the SS Statendam. Her Current residence now listed as Deer Isle, Maine. A remote island near no major cities. I surmise she moved to Florida after this trip.
Lenah Higbee at 49, passport photo

She received her first US passport in September 1899. I’ve found that she renewed it in December 1923; one of many renewals; in ’23 she was still residing at 55 East 76^th Street, NYC. When it was approved, her passport showed she had blue eyes — and a scar on her right wrist (injury?)

After retirement she also remained active in American health care. She was involved in, and soon became president of, the American Nurses’ Association. Among all her duties, she also campaigned for improved health care for all US residents.

Going back a bit … Because of the relatively close proximity to NY City, I will presume she attended the 1901 World’s Fair, in Buffalo. There are teasers that John may have spent some time here, although born in Manhattan. There, at that fair, many wonderous things were to be discovered; modern advancements in medical science were on display, including Roentgen’s X-Ray machine. Also exhibited were early manometers, improved stethoscopes, ophthalmoscopes, very early incubators, antiseptic techniques, and more. President McKinley was assassinated there in September. [See this girardmeister essay]

Lenah Sutcliffe Higbee passed away from natural causes on January 10, 1941, in Winter Park, Orange County, Florida, at age 66 years. Like her husband, she is interred with full Military Honors at Arlington National Cemetery. In fact, they are buried side-by-side –— Section 3, Site 1797.

Two naval vessels have been named for her Lenah Higbee.

USS Higbee, DD-806

The first, the USS Higbee (DD-806), was the first combat warship named after a female member of the U.S. military. It was commissioned in 1945, serving in Viet Nam and as part of the NASA Mercury missions Pacific Ocean recovery team. She was decommissioned in 1976 and, I guess sadly, was sunk in 1986 as part of an aerial bombardment exercise about 100 miles west of San Diego.

The second, the USS Lenah H. Sutcliffe Higbee (DDG-123), was laid in January 2020. It’s an Arleigh Burke-class* guided missile destroyer. It was christened in 2021, commissioned in May 2023 and due for official fleet entry later in 2024.

USS Higbee DD-123

Thanks for reading.

Thank you for reading. As always, you can add yourself to the notification list for newly published material by clicking here . Or emailing joe@girardmeister.com

L. Higbee at rest

Some final notes and linked sources

John’s data is scarce. He was born in New York, NY, 1840, and passed in Buffalo, NY, 1898
In the 1840 census, a John Higbee (father?) shows up in Brooklyn with two children under age 5 and a woman (name? wife?) aged 20-30. If this is our John’s family, our John Higbee would then be a “Junior.”
Can’t find any marriage, birth, or fatherhood records. However, it seems that all boroughs were not officially joined into New York City until 1898. So, perhaps, this is not the “John” we are looking for.
They may well have decided to dwell in Buffalo after visiting the Fair (where McKinley was assassinated, Sept 1901).
When I saw the name Edna Place (Navy Cross recipient) I couldn’t help but think of Etta Place, of “Butch Cassidy and Sundance Kid” fame, often considered the most beautiful woman of that era.
*For Colorado readers, Admiral Burke was a native of Boulder; The Burke school and Park are named for him. The school has been renamed Horizons Charter School
Tags in the text:
(*1) – Several Documents say 1873
(*2) – A very good guess is that John served in the 1st New York Marine Artillery Regiment. This regiment was first mustered in Nov, 1861, just after John’s joining, at age 17. Most 1st NY recruits were from New York City, his hometown. It’s also the only Marine group of any sort from New York state. Records show this group in combat, securing many ports from North Carolina up through Virginia.
(*3) – here I use pandemic, not epidemic. The former connotes worldwide; the latter something more local, as in epicenter.
(*4) – Spanish Flu: India lost 12 million, China almost 7 million to the flu. US “only” 675,000